The Historical Timeline of Surgery

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Surgery, as we know it today, wasn't truly invented until the late 1800s; even then, infection was common and outcomes were generally poor. Early techniques were primitive and even barbaric, by today's standards. Anesthesia was not used until the mid to late 1800s.

Even so, what was learned from centuries of trial and error, research, and experimentation led to procedures that are not only commonplace today but highly effective and safe.

These advances continue as robotic surgery, laser surgery, and microsurgery allow surgeons to treat conditions once thought untreatable. These advances have helped ensure that recovery times are shorter, hospitalization stays are fewer, outcomes are improved, and complications are minimized.

This article provides a timeline of notable surgeries and medical advances from the Stone Age through the early 2020s.

Surgeon closing stitches
Reza Estakhrian / Getty Images

Before the 19th Century

The concept of surgery was explored well before recorded history with early surgeons grasping the basic concepts of the human anatomy and organ systems. Among some of the notable findings:

  • Stone Age: The oldest known surgery was a leg amputation performed on a child on the island of Borneo around 31,000 years ago.
  • 6500 BCE: Skulls found in France show signs of a rudimentary surgery called trepanation, which involves drilling a hole in the skull.
  • 1750 BCE: The Code of Hammurabi, one of the earliest Babylonian codes of laws, details regulation governing surgeons, medical malpractice, and victim's compensation.
  • 1550 BCE: The Ebers Papyrus, an ancient Egyptian medical treaty, includes information on how to surgically treat crocodile bites and serious burns.
  • 600 BCE: Sushruta, regarded as the "founding father of surgery," was an innovator of plastic surgery, including rhinoplasty.
  • 950: Abulcasis, an Arab physician considered to be among the greatest medieval surgeons, apparently learned many of his skills from Greek surgeons.
  • 1363: French surgeon Guy de Chauliac writes "Chirurgia Magna" (Great Surgery), regarded as the standard text for surgeons until well into the 17th century.
  • 1540: English barbers and surgeons unite to form the United Barber-Surgeons Company. These "barber surgeons" performed tooth extractions and bloodletting.
  • 1630: Wilhelm Fabry, known as "the Father of German Surgery," is recognized as the first surgeon to employ amputation as a treatment for gangrene.

19th Century

Based on historical records, many regard the 19th century as the "birth of surgery" as we know it. It was a century marked by many "firsts," the discoveries of which enabled many of the surgical procedures still in use today. Among some of the landmarks of the era:

  • 1818: The first transfusion of human blood is performed.
  • 1843: The first hysterectomy is performed in England.
  • 1843: Ether is used for the first time as an anesthetic.
  • 1846: The first public use of ether as anesthesia is demonstrated in a surgery performed at the Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston involving the removal of a neck tumor.
  • 1855: Mary Edwards Walker graduates from medical school and becomes the first female surgeon in America.
  • 1867: British surgeon Joseph Lister publishes Antiseptic Principle in the Practice of Surgery, extolling the virtues of cleanliness in surgery.
  • 1885: The first successful appendectomy is performed in Iowa.
  • 1890s: Carbolic acid is one of the first agents used as a microbicide to disinfect surgical incisions and prevent postoperative infections.
  • 1893: The first successful heart surgery is performed at Provident Hospital in Chicago to repair a defect in the lining of the heart (pericardium). Some do not regard this as "heart surgery" since the heart itself was not treated.
  • 1895: The first X-ray is performed in Germany.
  • 1896: The first successful open-heart surgery is performed in Germany to repair a stab wound in the muscle of the right ventricle.

It wasn't until the 1900s that the likelihood of surviving surgery was greater than the likelihood of dying during or as a result of surgery.

20th Century

During the 20th century, major advances in surgery not only made surgery safer and more effective but enabled the treatment of a wider range of medical conditions, including the transplantation of organs. Among some of the key moments:

  • 1905: The first successful cornea transplant is performed.
  • 1917: The first documented plastic surgery is performed on a burned English sailor.
  • 1928: Antibiotics are discovered, preventing post-surgical bacterial infections.
  • 1930: A German person has the first sex reassignment operation from male to female.
  • 1940: The first metal hip replacement surgery is performed.
  • 1950: The first LASIK eye procedure is performed in Colombia.
  • 1950: The first successful organ transplant involving a kidney is performed, although the recipient dies a few months later of graft rejection.
  • 1952: The first successful heart surgery is performed in which the heart is stopped and restarted.
  • 1953: The first successful use of a heart-lung bypass machine is performed.
  • 1954: The first successful living donor kidney transplant is performed in which the donor was the recipient's twin.
  • 1966: The first successful pancreas transplant is performed.
  • 1967: The first successful liver transplant is performed.
  • 1967: The first heart transplant surgery is performed by South African surgeon Christian Barnard.
  • 1975: The first organ surgery is performed using minimally-invasive laparoscopic ("keyhole") surgery.
  • 1978: The first "test-tube" baby is born using in vitro fertilization (IVF).
  • 1982: The Jarvik-7 artificial heart was used.
  • 1984: A pediatric patient known as Baby Fae survives 21 days after being transplanted with the heart of a baboon.
  • 1985: The first documented robotic surgery is performed.
  • 1999: The first successful hand transplant is performed.
  • 1999: The FDA clears the cyberknife, which uses a combination of robotics and imaging, for the treatment of intracranial tumors.

Today, surgeons have more than 2,500 different surgical techniques in their arsenal. The focus moving forward is placed more on refining those techniques to ensure better short- and long-term outcomes.

21st Century

The words that arguably best describe surgery in the 21st century are "smaller" and "safer." Every year, innovations are introduced that allow surgeries that once required lengthy hospital stays to be done on an outpatient basis. Among some of the landmarks of the 21st century thus far:

  • 2000: The da Vinci robotic surgical system is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for prostate surgery, coronary artery bypass, and other surgical procedures.
  • 2007: The first natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery is performed in which tools are inserted through the mouth, nose, and other orifices to perform surgery without external incisions.
  • 2008: Connie Culp has the first near-total face transplant performed at the Cleveland Clinic.
  • 2010: The world's first full-face transplant is performed in Spain.
  • 2013: The first successful nerve-transfer surgery is performed in St. Louis, Missouri, giving a paraplegic individual the ability to move their hands.
  • 2014: The first penis transplant is performed at Tygerberg Hospital in South Africa.
  • 2016: The first uterus transplant is performed, again at the Cleveland Clinic.
  • 2018: The first abdominal wall transplant is performed at Duke University Hospital.
  • 2022: The first transplant of a genetically modified pig's heart into a human being is performed at the University of Maryland Medical Center.
  • 2023: The first whole eye and partial face transplant is performed at NYU Langone Health, making it the first-ever whole eye transplant and the first combined surgery of this kind.

Summary

The first surgeries were performed thousands of years ago, before anesthesia was invented and before infection prevention measures were understood. Since then, extraordinary strides have been made in how surgery is performed and what types of surgeries are now possible (such as heart transplants). Newer surgical techniques have resulted in better outcomes, faster recoveries, less pain, and longer life expectancies for patients.

3 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read our editorial process to learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
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  2. Brock C. Risk, responsibility and surgery in the 1890s and early 1900s. Med Hist. 2013 Jul;57(3):317-37. doi:10.1017/mdh.2013.16

  3. Gawande A. Two hundred years of surgery. N Engl J Med. 2012;366(18):1716-23. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1202392

By Jennifer Whitlock, RN, MSN, FN
Jennifer Whitlock, RN, MSN, FNP-C, is a board-certified family nurse practitioner. She has experience in primary care and hospital medicine.